(Rationale)
How is developing critical and historical thinking central to one or more disciplines [and how does it meet mandates]?
Developing critical thinking skills has been a popular topic in education and education research and reform in recent decades. Snyder and Snyder (2008) talk about how critical thinking is "the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1). This definition closely aligns with the upper levels of Bloom's Taxonomy which can be applied to instruction and learning across all disciplines- English/Language Arts, Science, Math, and Social Studies.
Snyder and Snyder (2008) go on to cite Rothstein, Wilder, & Jacobsen (2007) who suggest, "Throughout nearly 300 years of policymaking in the United States, educators have promoted eight broad goals of schooling: basic academic skills, critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health, emotional health, the arts and literature, and preparation for skilled employment" (p. 8). I believe that developing critical thinking skills is not merely central to multiple disciplines, but that it is central to education and schooling more generally. Although there seems to be much conversation and debate about what critical thinking means and entails, for the purposes of this unit, I considered critical thinking skills to mean questioning and evaluating information in order to problem solve or gain new insights while taking the presence of multiple perspectives into account. Leicester and Taylor (2010) would support this since they have identified aspects of critical thinking as: asking good questions, understanding point of view, being rational, and developing the skills of research and analysis (p. 1).
Although the Common Core State Standards and the Pennsylvania Core Standards for fourth grade do not specifically talk about critical thinking, many of the standards get at the ideas behind critical thinking. My CM allowed me to pick the theme for my unit, but as it takes place during the two weeks before PSSAs, she wanted to make sure that it was grounded in some of the standards and eligible content. I selected the standards for this unit both based on the instruction that I have seen already in my placement, my perceived student interests, and my interests. Fortunately for me, the standards that my CM had not addressed yet revolved around point of view and perspective, something that was interesting and important to me.
Questioning:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.4.1.C
Pose and respond to specific questions to clarify or follow up on information, and make comments that contribute to the discussion and link to the remarks of others.
Point of View:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.4.6
Compare and contrast the point of view from which different stories are narrated, including the difference between first- and third-person narrations.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.4.6
Compare and contrast a firsthand and secondhand account of the same event or topic; describe the differences in focus and the information provided.
Research and Analysis Skills:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.7
Conduct short research projects that build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.8
Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information from print and digital sources; take notes and categorize information, and provide a list of sources.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.9
Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
Although one might expect historical thinking to be applicable in the field of social studies and history alone, the core ideas behind historical thinking can extend to English/Language Arts and Science. Levstik and Barton (2005) argue that, "thinking historically is fundamentally about judgment- about building and evaluating warranted or grounded interpretation. It is interpretation grounded in evidence." (p. 209) The National History Education Clearinghouse identified five key aspects of historical thinking: multiple accounts and perspectives, analysis of primary sources, sourcing, context, and claim-evidence connection (Retrieved from http://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-intro on March 7, 2015). The first four aspects are emphasized in the English/Language Arts standards and the fifth key aspect of historical thinking has connections to all four major disciplines- Social Studies, English/Language Arts, Science, and Mathematics.
It is not surprising that my topic of creating historical thinkers is directly related to the Pennsylvania Academic Standards for History (Pennsylvania Department of Education, Retrieved from http://www.pdesas.org/standard/views#109|780|0|0 on February 2, 2015). The standards emphasize explaining and analyzing historical sources (Author or historical source; multiple historical perspectives); explaining the fundamentals of historical interpretation (Difference between fact and opinion; multiple points of view; author or source of historical narratives); and describing and explaining historical research (Historical events; facts; historical questions; primary sources; secondary sources; conclusions; simulations).
Why would developing critical and historical thinking be interesting?
1) To your students?
I initially chose to focus on developing critical and historical thinking by emphasizing multiple perspectives, questioning, and analyzing situations to problem solve because it is rooted in many of the standards for fourth grade. However, I decided to pursue the unit because I got the sense that the students like to debate and problem solve. They have been introduced to the key aspects of critical and historical thinking informally, but we have not yet pursued the topics further or studied them intentionally in a structured way.
As I mentioned in the description of my context, there have been a few incidences where our students have engaged in physical altercations with other students. Every time this happens, my CM convenes the class for a "trial" during which the students are able to present their evidence and my CM comes to a conclusion about what happened. The students are very keen on sharing their accounts of what happened and many students participate in these "trials". I think the students will enjoy being able to evaluate perspectives and sources themselves. By structuring a fictional, but realistic scenario that allows students to discuss and examine a situation through different perspectives, I hope to show the students that they have already been engaging in critical and historical thinking. As a class, we will take the next step by moving toward metacognition, or thinking about our thinking.
I think the way that I structured my unit and the teaching methods that I will draw upon will be interesting to my students because it entails a lot of hands-on learning experiences that push them to challenge their thinking and think outside the box. I have seen the difference between teaching this group of students in a whole-group direct instruction style versus teaching them by scaffolding ways for them to reach conclusions in small-groups or on their own through videos or using manipulatives. I also incorporated multiple individual projects that will help the students learn more about themselves and each other (Snapshot Autobiography) as well as showcase their individual talents and intelligences (Adaptation of a story through an un-told perspective).
2) To you as a teacher?
Although my unit topic was initially not particularly meaningful to me (most likely because it was too unfocused for my liking), I am happy that I changed my topic to critical and historical thinking. I have been interested in the importance of teaching critical thinking skills since it came up during my research for my undergraduate thesis. While I was conducting some preliminary research about different non-governmental organizations, I came across an organization based in Amman, Jordan called Think Unlimited. Part of the mission of this organization is to teach critical and creative thinking for social change (Retrieved from http://www.thinkunlimited.org/#100millionsolutions on March 7, 2015). I was very impressed with the co-founder of this organization. I felt like students in the United States should also learn how to evaluate real world situations and propose creative ways to solve problems.
A few years later, I found myself as a student teacher working toward my certification in the Teacher Education Program here at the University of Pennsylvania. I still believe that one of the greatest and most powerful things about being a teacher is being able to influence the lives of young people. I want to help my students develop the skills that will not only help them succeed in life and in future academic endeavors, but also support them as they become informed citizens who ask deep, meaningful questions and can analyze situations from multiple perspectives. It is my hope that focusing on exploring multiple perspectives will also help my students develop empathy.
How is developing critical and historical thinking accessible to students?
1) In terms of developmental appropriateness?
This is the first time that I have worked with a group of fourth graders or upper elementary students. I was surprised at the level of autonomy and independence that these children have. Unlike many of the first graders that I have worked with, these students can be self-reliant and self-motivated. Once the routines are in place, the students are able to and excited to engage in their work and learning in general. After reading multiple sources, it seems as if this enthusiasm for learning is not unique to my class of students, but is typical of fourth grade learners more generally (University of Chicago Lab Schools, Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx on March 7, 2015) (Responsive Classroom, Retrieved from https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/et4intro.pdf on March 7, 2015).
Fourth grade is also when students begin to develop their ability to complete projects on their own by gathering and organizing information and then presenting their findings in a clear and interesting way to an audience (University of Chicago Lab Schools, Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx on March 7, 2015). One of the main focuses of the fourth grade curriculum is making inferences about information based on their schema and the evidence in texts. This is the beginning of not merely regurgitating facts and evidence from sources, but taking the time to think deeper about what the evidence might suggest. Since a majority of the class is already able to make inferences from given information, I think evaluating where the information is coming from is a logical next step.
Another focus of the fourth grade curriculum is being able to identify the Author's purpose. I did a lesson about this subject with my students recently and they were able to read various passages and identify whether the author was trying to persuade, inform, or entertain the reader. Almost all of the students were able to quickly and correctly identify the Author's purpose or argument. Again, I believe the next step is to think about the Author's motivation and possible bias.
2) What resources are available to you that you can tap to help bring this subject alive for your students?
The most valuable resource that I came across was recommended to me by my cohort-mate, Jaimie, during one of our discussions during seminar. Jaimie took the Social Studies Secondary Methods course with Professor Reisman. She recommended that I look into the Stanford History Education Group to get ideas about developing historical thinking. Coincidentally, many of the structured learning activities that I was trying to formulate in my head were laid out in concise lesson plans already on this website. I had already engaged in the Rosa Parks bus seat exercise myself with Professor Reisman last fall when we did a lesson about evaluating sources. I thoroughly enjoyed the lesson and I know that my students are coming in with background knowledge about Rosa Parks. The Stanford Historical Education Group has provided artifacts (and modified artifacts for younger students) that make this topic more concrete and real. Professor Reisman also supplemented these resources with a video interview of Rosa Parks that I believe will help take my students' understanding of evaluating sources to the next level.
D. How does developing critical and historical thinking provide opportunities for multiple connections?
As I mentioned already, this unit provides opportunities for many connections. The subject matter is closely related to the skills and standards that we have been working on this year, such as inferencing and identifying the Author's purpose. The focus on listening to multiple perspectives to make sense of an event has not been taught explicitly, but it is something that the students are familiar with due to my CM's approach to discussing class incidents. I also think that having these class meetings/"trials" will give students a way to connect with the idea that it is difficult to determine if something is true or factual. Lastly, the students will be able to make connections with the question of "What makes evidence 'strong' or 'compelling'?" because providing textual evidence is so deeply ingrained in this classroom and with these students.
References:
Leicester, M. & Taylor, D. (2010). Critical thinking across the curriculum: Developing critical thinking skills, literacy, and philosophy in the primary classroom. Berkshire, England: Open University Press.
Levstik, L., & Barton, K. (2005). Doing history investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Assocs.
National History Education Clearinghouse. (n.d.) What is historical thinking? Retrieved from http://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-intro
Pennsylvania Department of Education (n.d.) 4th grade history standards. Retrieved from http://www.pdesas.org/standard/views#109|780|0|0.
Responsive classroom. (2010). What every 4th grade teacher needs to know about setting up and running a classroom. Retrieved from https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/et4intro.pdf
Rothstein, R., Wilder, T., & Jacobsen, R. (2007). Balance in the balance. Educational Leadership, 52(8), 8–14.
Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (2007). Defining critical thinking. The Critical Thinking Community: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_thinking.cfm
Snyder, L. G. & Snyder, M. J. (2008). Teaching critical thinking and problem solving skills. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 1(2), 91-99.
Stanford Historical Education Group. (2015). Historical thinking matters. Retrieved from https://sheg.stanford.edu/htm
Think Unlimited. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.thinkunlimited.org/#100millionsolutions
University of Chicago Lab Schools. (2015). Fourth grade developmental description. Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx.
Developing critical thinking skills has been a popular topic in education and education research and reform in recent decades. Snyder and Snyder (2008) talk about how critical thinking is "the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1). This definition closely aligns with the upper levels of Bloom's Taxonomy which can be applied to instruction and learning across all disciplines- English/Language Arts, Science, Math, and Social Studies.
Snyder and Snyder (2008) go on to cite Rothstein, Wilder, & Jacobsen (2007) who suggest, "Throughout nearly 300 years of policymaking in the United States, educators have promoted eight broad goals of schooling: basic academic skills, critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health, emotional health, the arts and literature, and preparation for skilled employment" (p. 8). I believe that developing critical thinking skills is not merely central to multiple disciplines, but that it is central to education and schooling more generally. Although there seems to be much conversation and debate about what critical thinking means and entails, for the purposes of this unit, I considered critical thinking skills to mean questioning and evaluating information in order to problem solve or gain new insights while taking the presence of multiple perspectives into account. Leicester and Taylor (2010) would support this since they have identified aspects of critical thinking as: asking good questions, understanding point of view, being rational, and developing the skills of research and analysis (p. 1).
Although the Common Core State Standards and the Pennsylvania Core Standards for fourth grade do not specifically talk about critical thinking, many of the standards get at the ideas behind critical thinking. My CM allowed me to pick the theme for my unit, but as it takes place during the two weeks before PSSAs, she wanted to make sure that it was grounded in some of the standards and eligible content. I selected the standards for this unit both based on the instruction that I have seen already in my placement, my perceived student interests, and my interests. Fortunately for me, the standards that my CM had not addressed yet revolved around point of view and perspective, something that was interesting and important to me.
Questioning:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.4.1.C
Pose and respond to specific questions to clarify or follow up on information, and make comments that contribute to the discussion and link to the remarks of others.
Point of View:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.4.6
Compare and contrast the point of view from which different stories are narrated, including the difference between first- and third-person narrations.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.4.6
Compare and contrast a firsthand and secondhand account of the same event or topic; describe the differences in focus and the information provided.
Research and Analysis Skills:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.7
Conduct short research projects that build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.8
Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information from print and digital sources; take notes and categorize information, and provide a list of sources.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.9
Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
Although one might expect historical thinking to be applicable in the field of social studies and history alone, the core ideas behind historical thinking can extend to English/Language Arts and Science. Levstik and Barton (2005) argue that, "thinking historically is fundamentally about judgment- about building and evaluating warranted or grounded interpretation. It is interpretation grounded in evidence." (p. 209) The National History Education Clearinghouse identified five key aspects of historical thinking: multiple accounts and perspectives, analysis of primary sources, sourcing, context, and claim-evidence connection (Retrieved from http://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-intro on March 7, 2015). The first four aspects are emphasized in the English/Language Arts standards and the fifth key aspect of historical thinking has connections to all four major disciplines- Social Studies, English/Language Arts, Science, and Mathematics.
It is not surprising that my topic of creating historical thinkers is directly related to the Pennsylvania Academic Standards for History (Pennsylvania Department of Education, Retrieved from http://www.pdesas.org/standard/views#109|780|0|0 on February 2, 2015). The standards emphasize explaining and analyzing historical sources (Author or historical source; multiple historical perspectives); explaining the fundamentals of historical interpretation (Difference between fact and opinion; multiple points of view; author or source of historical narratives); and describing and explaining historical research (Historical events; facts; historical questions; primary sources; secondary sources; conclusions; simulations).
Why would developing critical and historical thinking be interesting?
1) To your students?
I initially chose to focus on developing critical and historical thinking by emphasizing multiple perspectives, questioning, and analyzing situations to problem solve because it is rooted in many of the standards for fourth grade. However, I decided to pursue the unit because I got the sense that the students like to debate and problem solve. They have been introduced to the key aspects of critical and historical thinking informally, but we have not yet pursued the topics further or studied them intentionally in a structured way.
As I mentioned in the description of my context, there have been a few incidences where our students have engaged in physical altercations with other students. Every time this happens, my CM convenes the class for a "trial" during which the students are able to present their evidence and my CM comes to a conclusion about what happened. The students are very keen on sharing their accounts of what happened and many students participate in these "trials". I think the students will enjoy being able to evaluate perspectives and sources themselves. By structuring a fictional, but realistic scenario that allows students to discuss and examine a situation through different perspectives, I hope to show the students that they have already been engaging in critical and historical thinking. As a class, we will take the next step by moving toward metacognition, or thinking about our thinking.
I think the way that I structured my unit and the teaching methods that I will draw upon will be interesting to my students because it entails a lot of hands-on learning experiences that push them to challenge their thinking and think outside the box. I have seen the difference between teaching this group of students in a whole-group direct instruction style versus teaching them by scaffolding ways for them to reach conclusions in small-groups or on their own through videos or using manipulatives. I also incorporated multiple individual projects that will help the students learn more about themselves and each other (Snapshot Autobiography) as well as showcase their individual talents and intelligences (Adaptation of a story through an un-told perspective).
2) To you as a teacher?
Although my unit topic was initially not particularly meaningful to me (most likely because it was too unfocused for my liking), I am happy that I changed my topic to critical and historical thinking. I have been interested in the importance of teaching critical thinking skills since it came up during my research for my undergraduate thesis. While I was conducting some preliminary research about different non-governmental organizations, I came across an organization based in Amman, Jordan called Think Unlimited. Part of the mission of this organization is to teach critical and creative thinking for social change (Retrieved from http://www.thinkunlimited.org/#100millionsolutions on March 7, 2015). I was very impressed with the co-founder of this organization. I felt like students in the United States should also learn how to evaluate real world situations and propose creative ways to solve problems.
A few years later, I found myself as a student teacher working toward my certification in the Teacher Education Program here at the University of Pennsylvania. I still believe that one of the greatest and most powerful things about being a teacher is being able to influence the lives of young people. I want to help my students develop the skills that will not only help them succeed in life and in future academic endeavors, but also support them as they become informed citizens who ask deep, meaningful questions and can analyze situations from multiple perspectives. It is my hope that focusing on exploring multiple perspectives will also help my students develop empathy.
How is developing critical and historical thinking accessible to students?
1) In terms of developmental appropriateness?
This is the first time that I have worked with a group of fourth graders or upper elementary students. I was surprised at the level of autonomy and independence that these children have. Unlike many of the first graders that I have worked with, these students can be self-reliant and self-motivated. Once the routines are in place, the students are able to and excited to engage in their work and learning in general. After reading multiple sources, it seems as if this enthusiasm for learning is not unique to my class of students, but is typical of fourth grade learners more generally (University of Chicago Lab Schools, Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx on March 7, 2015) (Responsive Classroom, Retrieved from https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/et4intro.pdf on March 7, 2015).
Fourth grade is also when students begin to develop their ability to complete projects on their own by gathering and organizing information and then presenting their findings in a clear and interesting way to an audience (University of Chicago Lab Schools, Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx on March 7, 2015). One of the main focuses of the fourth grade curriculum is making inferences about information based on their schema and the evidence in texts. This is the beginning of not merely regurgitating facts and evidence from sources, but taking the time to think deeper about what the evidence might suggest. Since a majority of the class is already able to make inferences from given information, I think evaluating where the information is coming from is a logical next step.
Another focus of the fourth grade curriculum is being able to identify the Author's purpose. I did a lesson about this subject with my students recently and they were able to read various passages and identify whether the author was trying to persuade, inform, or entertain the reader. Almost all of the students were able to quickly and correctly identify the Author's purpose or argument. Again, I believe the next step is to think about the Author's motivation and possible bias.
2) What resources are available to you that you can tap to help bring this subject alive for your students?
The most valuable resource that I came across was recommended to me by my cohort-mate, Jaimie, during one of our discussions during seminar. Jaimie took the Social Studies Secondary Methods course with Professor Reisman. She recommended that I look into the Stanford History Education Group to get ideas about developing historical thinking. Coincidentally, many of the structured learning activities that I was trying to formulate in my head were laid out in concise lesson plans already on this website. I had already engaged in the Rosa Parks bus seat exercise myself with Professor Reisman last fall when we did a lesson about evaluating sources. I thoroughly enjoyed the lesson and I know that my students are coming in with background knowledge about Rosa Parks. The Stanford Historical Education Group has provided artifacts (and modified artifacts for younger students) that make this topic more concrete and real. Professor Reisman also supplemented these resources with a video interview of Rosa Parks that I believe will help take my students' understanding of evaluating sources to the next level.
D. How does developing critical and historical thinking provide opportunities for multiple connections?
As I mentioned already, this unit provides opportunities for many connections. The subject matter is closely related to the skills and standards that we have been working on this year, such as inferencing and identifying the Author's purpose. The focus on listening to multiple perspectives to make sense of an event has not been taught explicitly, but it is something that the students are familiar with due to my CM's approach to discussing class incidents. I also think that having these class meetings/"trials" will give students a way to connect with the idea that it is difficult to determine if something is true or factual. Lastly, the students will be able to make connections with the question of "What makes evidence 'strong' or 'compelling'?" because providing textual evidence is so deeply ingrained in this classroom and with these students.
References:
Leicester, M. & Taylor, D. (2010). Critical thinking across the curriculum: Developing critical thinking skills, literacy, and philosophy in the primary classroom. Berkshire, England: Open University Press.
Levstik, L., & Barton, K. (2005). Doing history investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Assocs.
National History Education Clearinghouse. (n.d.) What is historical thinking? Retrieved from http://teachinghistory.org/historical-thinking-intro
Pennsylvania Department of Education (n.d.) 4th grade history standards. Retrieved from http://www.pdesas.org/standard/views#109|780|0|0.
Responsive classroom. (2010). What every 4th grade teacher needs to know about setting up and running a classroom. Retrieved from https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/et4intro.pdf
Rothstein, R., Wilder, T., & Jacobsen, R. (2007). Balance in the balance. Educational Leadership, 52(8), 8–14.
Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (2007). Defining critical thinking. The Critical Thinking Community: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_thinking.cfm
Snyder, L. G. & Snyder, M. J. (2008). Teaching critical thinking and problem solving skills. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 1(2), 91-99.
Stanford Historical Education Group. (2015). Historical thinking matters. Retrieved from https://sheg.stanford.edu/htm
Think Unlimited. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.thinkunlimited.org/#100millionsolutions
University of Chicago Lab Schools. (2015). Fourth grade developmental description. Retrieved from http://ucls.uchicago.edu/schools/fourth-grade/index.aspx.